TOEFL iBT - Exam 1 - Reading

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 1/10

1 According to the first paragraph, how did archaeology become a recognized discipline?

A.Through the history of excavations beginning in ancient Babylon, which sought to investigate and restore ancient sites.

B.Through the methodical excavation and recording of people like William Stukeley at Stonehenge.

C.Through the development of digging techniques and recording methods by Flinders Petrie.

D.Through the inclusion of the word 'archaeologist' in the OED.

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 2/10

2 What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the development of modern archaeology?

A.Geology and Archaeology developed simultaneously.

B.Ethical considerations have diminished Jefferson’s role.

C.It relied on the ability to take precise measurements.

D.Changes in religious thinking were key to its acceptance.

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 3/10

3 In paragraph 1, why does the author include the information that the word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824?

A.To provide evidence of the late development of archaeology as a discipline.

B.To provide the date when archaeology started to be considered a professional field.

C.To suggest that the transition from hobby to profession took a long time.

D.To explain how a new word came into common use in the 19th century.

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 4/10

4 According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of excavation EXCEPT

A.It is a non-reversible and destructive process.

B.Excavation size is dependent on the answers sought.

C.It is the preferred method of data collection.

D.Depth is often determined by location.

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 5/10

5 The word record in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

A.data

B.detail

C.profile

D.evidence

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 6/10

6 The word viable in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

A.economic

B.possible

C.practical

D.logical

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 7/10

7 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the following sentence from paragraph 3?

Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth’s surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones.

A.Stratigraphy is based on two theories from the geologist Steno, that soil deposition runs parallel to the surface of the Earth and that newer deposits overlie earlier ones.

B.Nicolaus Steno was responsible for developing the principles of stratigraphy in the 17th century based on the laws of physics and his understanding of geology.

C.The Laws of Horizontality and Superposition support the notion of stratigraphy, first suggested by a 17th-century geologist, Nicolaus Steno.

D.Stratigraphy assumes two laws apply: the Law of Superposition (that older soils are buried by newer ones) and the Law of Horizontality (that soils accumulate evenly across the Earth’s surface).

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. ■ ① Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. ■ ② As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. ■ ③ Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. ■ ④ This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 8/10

8 Look at the four squares [■] in paragraph 3 that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence below best fit?

Marker horizons, such as distinct layers of ash within clay, are used to determine excavation depth and provide additional context in stratigraphic profiles.

A.Square 1

B.Square 2

C.Square 3

D.Square 4

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 9/10

9 According to the fourth paragraph, the choice of how finds are separated from the soil is dependent upon which factor?

A.The size of the screen used

B.The density of the materials

C.The nature of the materials

D.The availability of running water

[1] Archaeology—the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture—when did it all begin? We could point to Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon, who excavated and restored the temple of the moon god Sin at Harran and the temple of the sun god Shamash at Sippar in the mid-6th century BCE. We could consider the work of antiquarians like William Stukeley, who conducted detailed investigations and excavations at Stonehenge and Avebury in the early 18th century, or Thomas Jefferson, sometimes named the 'Father of Archaeology' for his systematic excavation and recording of burial mounds in the US, although that accolade is now more often given to others, as his motives were less the understanding of Native American culture than its extinction. The fact is that there are many contributors who helped shift the amateur study of the past, which in some cases was little more than treasure-hunting, into the scientific discipline it is today, but none more than Flinders Petrie, who developed archaeological methods and techniques that are still in use today, including detailed recording and stratigraphic excavation. The word 'archaeologist' didn't appear in the OED until 1824, and it took advances in geology and religious thinking by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin and the acceptance of the tripartite system of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for the discipline to gain professional status.

[2] When people think of archaeology, they immediately think of excavation, but excavation is inherently destructive since the archaeological record is non-renewable. Mistakes made during excavation cannot be reversed or corrected; what is unearthed cannot be put back as it was, so modern archaeologists reserve excavation for situations where it is the only viable option to gather essential data. They are costly in terms of time and money and can vary in scale from one-meter square test pits to entire villages. The scale depends on the research questions being addressed. Initial excavations might answer some questions, prompting changes in the scale or nature of subsequent ones. One method, vertical excavation, uses trenches or test pits to explore the chronological depth of the archaeological record, examining stratigraphic profiles and artifacts to determine cultural changes over time. Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves exposing a broad, shallow area to study site configuration and function, typically focusing on regional differences in environmental usage. Such choices can vary based on archaeologists' training and regional practices. For instance, the Wheeler box grid method, which leaves intact walls between grid squares, is common internationally but less so in the United States, where open area excavation without balks is more prevalent. In either case, square excavation units are preferred for ease of calculating artifact density and ensuring precision using the Pythagorean Theorem.

[3] Stratigraphic data, which refers to information gathered from analyzing soil and sediment layers, help archaeologists contextualize the archaeological record, providing relative dating for the site and its contents and offering insights into natural processes occurred after it was abandoned. Two assumptions, based on the work of 17th-century geologist Nicolaus Steno, underlie stratigraphy: the Law of Horizontality, which suggests that soils accumulate in layers parallel to the Earth's surface, and the Law of Superposition, which states that older soils are generally found beneath younger ones. These principles enable archaeologists to understand soil accumulation and use layers to tell time. As each excavation level is completed, archaeologists measure depth, ensuring uniform excavation. The depth of excavation is determined in advance, either based on the natural layers of soil or rock (strata) found at the site or set at arbitrary intervals, typically 10 or 20 centimeters. Recording the data involves drawing sketches, taking photographs, and documenting soil characteristics and the stratigraphic profile. This process continues until data collection is complete or something halts the excavation, such as hitting the water table. Before backfilling, archaeologists sometimes leave a modern marker at the excavation's deepest point to aid future researchers.

[4] Excavated material is sorted through screens to separate artifacts from soil. Screen size and method (wet or dry) vary depending on the surrounding materials and anticipated finds. Flotation, a water screening process, is used for recovering light materials like pollen, while wet screening with water hoses helps with dense or wet soil like clay. The choice significantly impacts artifact recovery and preservation. Finds are bagged with their provenance data and later recorded in a field catalog. Post-excavation work, often more time-consuming than fieldwork, involves cataloging and analyzing finds in the lab. As technology advances, new tools arise to aid in the analysis and interpretation of artifacts, enabling archaeologists to revisit previous finds, akin to reopening a cold case. In the last fifty years, DNA profiling, dendrochronology, and photoluminescence have all enabled archaeologists to refine notions of the past, showing relationships between populations and shedding new light on cultural exchange occurring thousands of years ago.

Question 10/10

10 Select the 3 answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.

Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

This question is worth 2 points.

A.Archaeology's transition from amateur to scientific discipline owes much to figures like Flinders Petrie, who pioneered enduring excavation techniques.

B.Excavation is time-consuming, costly, and inherently destructive, but frequently it is the only way to gather any information about the past.

C.Stratigraphy, based on geological principles, is an essential tool in dating sites and understanding cultural changes over time

D.Excavation levels are recorded meticulously, with depths measured to ensure consistency across a site.

E.Post-excavation analysis involves classifying artifacts through methods like wet or dry screening and their careful storage.

F.New technology is constantly helping to reshape our view of the past.

TOEFL iBT – Exam 1 – Reading

TOEFL iBT Reading Practice Test – Exam 1

Text 1

You are going to read the first of 2 passages. You will have to answer 10 questions per passage. In a real exam, you would need to complete the Reading Section in about 36 minutes. Read the first passage and answer the questions.

The TOEFL iBT Reading section

Summary

Reading scores

Types of questions

1. Factual Information

2. Inference

3. Rhetorical Purpose

4. Negative Factual Information

5. Vocabulary in Context

6. Sentence simplification

7. Insert Text questions

8. Prose Summary Questions

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